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Table 1 The psychomotor domain taxonomy of oral skills (adapted from Atkinson, 2018)

From: E-diagnostic assessment of collaborative and individual oral tiered task performance in differentiated second language instruction framework

Stage

Proto-verb

Descriptor

Imitation

(to) imitate

The ability to observe, copy, and replicate the speech sounds of others

Manipulation

(to) manipulate

The ability to articulate sounds by memory or repeat/reproduce speech to prescribed standard instructions

Precision

(to) perfect

The ability to articulate speech sounds without interventions from others, with a high degree of accuracy and few errors

Articulation

(to) articulate

The ability to adapt, assimilate or integrate existing psychomotor skills in a novel and non-standard way (e.g., a dialect or accent)

Naturalization

(to) embody

The ability to articulate natural or near-natural speech in an automatic, intuitive, or unconscious way appropriate to the context