Table 1 The extracted codes, categories, and themes for the role of L1 and L2 using the constant comparison analysis technique

L1 use for learning purposes

L1 and L2 Use Permission

I like it when my teacher allows me to use my first language (Farsi)/(English) in this class

I believe that both English and Farsi can be used in this class

Students should be allowed to use their first/second language (Farsi)/(English) in the class

I believe that to learn English better, students should use English all the time in this class

I feel more at ease when I am allowed to use my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) in this class

L1 and L2 Use in General

I think that translating words/sentences/ideas that I do not know helps me while reading texts in English in this class

Annotating texts in my first/second language helps me understand the texts at a deeper level

I like translating texts in English into my first language (Farsi) because it helps me learn better

I prefer writing in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English)

I think new grammatical points should be presented in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English)

New vocabulary items should be presented in English and Farsi equivalents

L1 and L2 Use with Others

I feel that I can relate to my classmates when I use my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) in this class

I prefer to work in groups with classmates who speak my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) in this class

I like using my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) with other students to discuss texts assigned in this class that I find challenging

I prefer to use my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) with my fellow classmates outside of class

Using my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) helps me communicate better in this class

I can express my ideas better when I am able to discuss articles with my classmates in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English)

L1 Use for uesting purposes

L1 and L2 Use in Oral Performance and Assignments

I use my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) to help me write essays or assignments for this class

I believe that translating Farsi into English to retell a story is a good way to learn how to speak in English

I like to brainstorm/freewrite in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) while planning my assignments for this class

I can express my ideas better when I am allowed to write and speak in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) in this class

I believe that students should speak in English during group activities in this class

I like to use my first/second language (Farsi)/(English) to see if I understand the topics/materials discussed in this class

I like to use an English-to-Farsi dictionary to look up new words when I am reading texts for this class

L1 and L2 Use in Assessment and Testing

In testing sessions, I prefer to have the questions in my first/second language (Farsi)/(English)

In testing sessions, while I retell a story in English, it is helpful when the teacher shifts to Farsi for guiding me to the rest of the story

The teacher’s shifting into Farsi does not distract me when I am doing a task in testing sessions

Depending on the type of tasks (oral, written, fill-in, multiple choice, etc.), only L1 (Farsi) can be used for assessing L2 language

Depending on the type of tasks (oral, written, fill-in, multiple choice, etc.), only L2 (English) can be used for assessing L2 language

Depending on the type of tasks (oral, written, fill-in, multiple choice, etc.), both L1 (Farsi) and L2 (English) can be used for assessing L2 language