Is the Common Test for University Admissions in Japan enough to measure students’ general English proficiency? The case of the TOEIC Bridge

Language Testing in Asia

Table 3 List of studies on test constructs and structure of L2 abilities using private tests

Study	Participants	Participants’ L1	Private Tests	Unitary	Uncorrelated	Correlated	Higher-order
Bachman et al. (1995)	Various	Various	Cambridge Examinations & TOEFL PBT	×	×	△	○
Fouly et al. (1990)	University students	Various	TOEFL PBT + α	×	×	○	○
Gu (2015)	Aged 11–15	Various	TOEFL JC	×	×	×	○
Hale et al. (1988)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	○	-
Hale et al. (1989)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	○	-
In’nami and Koizumi (2012)	University students	Mostly Japanese	TOEIC LR	×	×	○	-
In’nami et al. (2016)	University students	Japanese	TEAP & TOEFL iBT	×	×	×	○
Kamiya (2017)	High school students	Japanese	TOEFL JC & Center Test	△	×	○	-
Kunnan (1995)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	○	×
Manning (1987)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	○	-
Nakamura (2022)	University students	Japanese	TEAP	×	×	×	○
Oller (1979)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	○	×	×	×
Oller and Hinofotis (1980)	University students	Various	TOEFL PBT	○	×	×	×
Stricker and Rock (2008)	Various	Various	TOEFL iBT	×	×	△	○
Sawaki et al. (2008)	Various	Various	TOEFL iBT	×	×	△	○
Sawaki et al. (2009)	Various	Various	TOEFL iBT	×	×	△	○
Sawaki and Sinharay (2018)	Various	Various	TOEFL iBT	×	-	○	△
Shin (2005)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	△	○
Swinton and Powers (1980)	Various	Various	TOEFL PBT	×	×	○	-
Wilson (2000)	Various	Japanese & Korean	TOEIC LR	×	○	×	×

The table is not intended to be an exhaustive list of previous studies on this subject. TEAP Test of English for Academic Purposes (available only for Japanese university applicants), TOEFL JC TOEFL Junior Comprehensive, TOEIC LR TOEIC Listening & Reading. “△” denotes that this model was chosen as the second best. “–” denotes that this model was not considered. In the case of higher-order model, it was not considered due to the fact that the number of first-order factors was less than four (see the main text for its rationales)