Table 1 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for L1 WTC conceptualization and its directions
Authors | Objectives | Participants | Instruments | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Burgoon (1976) | Developing unwillingness to communicate scale | – | Questionnaire | It is suggested to utilize a 20-item tool consisting of two factors, namely, reward and approach-avoidance, for research purposes |
Chan and McCroskey (1987) | Examining the validity of the WTC scale | Three undergraduate classes | Questionnaire and observation | The results reported the validity of the scale and suggested for further research to consider trait and situational factors |
MacIntyre (1994) | The constructs initially identified by Burgoon (communication apprehension, anomie, alienation, introversion, and self-esteem) were examined as personality-based sources of WTC in this study | Data of studies: McCroskey and McCroskey (1986a) and McCroskey et al. (1987) | Questionnaire | The findings indicate that the occurrence of WTC can be attributed to a blend of communication apprehension and perceived competence, both of which stem from introversion and self-esteem |
MacIntyre et al. (1999) | Investigating WTC in terms of trait and state aspects | 226 male and female university students | Questionnaire | Volunteering for the lab portion of the study was found to be related to trait WTC, whereas initiating a difficult communication task was associated with state WTC. Furthermore, the participants’ perceived competence in a particular state was found to predict both the time taken and the number of ideas generated during an easy speaking task. Similarly, state anxiety was found to predict the time taken and the number of ideas generated during a difficult speaking task |
McCroskey and Richmond (1982) | Examining measures of communication apprehension and shyness constructs for both relationship and independence | Initial study: 606 college students Major study: 590 subjects and observers | Questionnaire | The research outcomes substantiate the validity of the conceptual differentiation between these constructs |
McCroskey and Richmond (1990) | Examining the relationships between WTC in L1 with communication apprehension, communication competence, and introversion in USA, Sweden, Australia, Micronesia, and Puerto Rico | – | Data from other projects | They found various degrees of relations among them as American students with high willing, Micronesian students with low willing to communicate, Swedish students with the highest, and Micronesian students with the lowest perceived language competence |
Mortensen et al. (1977) | Examining a self-report tool (PVB) in measuring verbal behavior tendency | – | Self-report instrument | PVB demonstrated satisfactory internal reliability and validity. The participants exhibited a general cognitive inclination toward their speech patterns, which positively correlated with the quantity of words and duration of speech |