Table 3 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualization
Authors | Objectives | Participants | Instruments | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Azizi and Khafaga (2023) | The impact of utilizing G-DA as a scaffolding technique in enhancing the language skills and components of EFL learners was investigated. Furthermore, the study explored the potential benefits of G-DA in fostering psychological constructs like motivation, learning anxiety, and WTC among the learners | 124 grade 11 students | Questionnaire | Their findings evidenced significant improvements in motivation in the experimental group. Additionally, the learning anxiety of the experimental group was significantly relieved as a result of the G-DA-based teaching. The experimental group’s WTC was also significantly improved |
Cao and Philp (2006) | They investigated the eight students’ self-reports of their WTC in three circumstances: whole class, small group, and pair work | Ten students of a private language school | Observation, interviews, and questionnaires | The learners’ self-reports were found to be ineffective in predicting their WTC behavior. However, it is important to note that these self-reports could be affected by both trait-level and state-level WTC factors - The WTC status varied across the three interactional contexts, and the classroom observation appeared to be a proper way to investigate situational L2 WTC - Some factors were confirmed as influencing L2 WTC, such as self-confidence, group size, familiarity with conversers and discussing topics, cultural background, and medium of communication |
Clément et al. (2003) | WTC in L2: context, norms, and vitality effects | 130 Anglophone (majority) and 248 Francophone (minority) students | Questionnaire | They argued against the L2 WTC model presented by MacIntyre et al. (1998), claiming that it is unable to explain the context where social pressures might cause L2 use against the speaker’s will. Therefore, they combined the model with Clément’s (1980) social context model, considering social, contextual, and individual difference variables. However, the results revealed that Francophones, the minority group with less ethnolinguistic liveliness, had high WTC in L2, L2 confidence, more frequency of L2 interaction, and a higher identification with the L2 group compared to Anglophones |
Dörnyei and Kormos (2000) | They investigated a range of affective and social factors, such as WTC, on L2 students’ participation in communicative tasks | 46 Hungarian students | Self-report questionnaires | They concluded that learners’ views on the task affected their WTC in class. Also, there were strong and positive relations between students’ WTC and L2 production among students with positive attitudes while performing the task |
Khajavy et al. (2016) | They investigated WTC using a microsystem model | 243 Iranian students in the English language | Questionnaire | Classroom environment directly predicted WTC and affected perceptions, communication confidence, and motivation; communication confidence directly impacted WTC; motivation and English language proficiency indirectly influenced WTC through communication confidence |
Öz et al. (2015) | Examined students’ attitudes toward WTC in Turkey | 134 | Questionnaire | The students had improved WTC, communicative competence, and communication apprehension. Communicative competence and communication apprehension was strong predictor of WTC, and motivational variables indirectly affected WTC. The suggested model explained 63% of the variance in WTC |
Peng (2007) | Studied the WTC antecedents from a Chinese cultural perspective | 174 college students | Questionnaire | Students’ L2 WTC is influenced by Chinese Confucian heritage Communicative competence is considered a downplayed predicator and a less important variable in the Chinese context, whereas, classroom climate could be considered an environment developed by a larger number of “others” to which the person self is linked up with directed. She also postulated that Chinese students need linguistic, affective, cognitive, and cultural readiness to tend to communicate |
Weaver (2005) | Impact of English teaching and pre-task planning on learners’ WTC while performing various communicative tasks inside the class | 490 Japanese university students | Questionnaire | Post-instruction increase regarding WTC, implying a positive impact of pre-task planning on WTC |
Zangoei and Derakhshan (2021) | They examined the association of pragmatic listening comprehension with language proficiency, self-regulated learning in listening | 269 Iranian EFL learners with advanced proficiency in the language | Questionnaire and multiple-choice test | They found that pragmatic listening comprehension has a significant and positive relationship with language proficiency, self-regulated learning in listening, and WTC |
Wen and Clément (2003) | They conceptualized Chinese ESL students’ WTC | – | Discussion | The researchers developed MacIntyre et al.’s framework by adjusting certain structural relationships among variables and reevaluating them through a Chinese cultural lens. Their study revealed that cultural values played a significant role in shaping students’ attitudes and learning outcomes in L2 communication. Finally, they explained the linguistic, communicative, and social-psychological factors contributing to learners’ WTC |
Li and Li (2022) | The research focused on investigating the connections between the antecedents at the trait level, specifically the demographic characteristics of students, and their second L2 WTC | 1502 university students | Questionnaire | The students’ socioeconomic status had a positive effect on their WTC in meaning-focused activities |