Table 4 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for operationalization of WTC in digital context
Authors | Objectives | Participants | Instruments | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Kruk (2022) | The researchers examined the affective factors related to WTC, motivation, language anxiety, and boredom within the context of complex dynamic systems | Two Polish adult learners | Background questionnaire and a session log | The findings showed fluctuations in the levels of the variables under consideration, both within individual interactions and across different visits. These variations in the variables were influenced by various positive factors (such as topics, opportunities for discussing shared interests and understanding the responses from conversation partners) and negative factors (like unfriendly SL users, boredom, uncooperative SL users, and past negative encounters) |
Lee (2019) | Lee examined factors influencing L2 WTC in digital contexts | 98 Korean EFL university students | In-depth interviews | The researcher discovered that various factors, including the context in which the students were communicating (such as the people they were talking to and the teaching methods used by their instructor), as well as individual factors like anxiety and self-confidence in their second language, collectively influenced the students’ ability to engage in L2 communication in a digital environment. This finding further supports the notion that L2 WTC is both context-dependent and subject to change over time. Moreover, despite L2 WTC increasing popularity among researchers in digital contexts, it requires much attention to reveal various aspects of the dynamicity nature of L2 WTC |
Lee and Liu (2022) | They investigated the dynamicity of seven EFL university students’ WTC in an online class | Seven EFL university students | Stimulated recalls and semi-structured interviews | The results of their study revealed that the levels of L2 WTC among EFL learners are subject to constant change due to the interplay of different trait-like factors, such as their receptiveness to new online learning experiences, and state-like factors, such as technical difficulties encountered during the learning process |
Lee and Drajati (2020) | They developed a new scale of L2 WTC in digital and non-digital EFL contexts | 114 Indonesian EFL students | Questionnaire | They validated L2 WTC scale |
Lee and Dressman (2018) | The researchers investigated the correlation between L2 WTC and informal digital learning of English. This study focused on the growing trend among self-directed EFL learners who utilize English in digital environments outside the traditional classroom setting | 94 Korean EFL students | Questionnaire and interviews | It was discovered that EFL students actively participate in English activities outside of the classroom using technology, resulting in a noteworthy enhancement of their online L2 WTC |
Lee and Lu (2023) | The investigation delved into the correlation between the L2 motivational self system, specifically the ideal L2 self and the ought-to L2 self, and L2 WTC both within and outside the classroom environment | 417 Chinese EFL middle school students | Questionnaire and semi-structured interview | The findings indicated that the ideal L2 self had a substantial impact on the L2 WTC in both the traditional classroom environment and the digital setting outside of the classroom |
Lee and Taylor (2022) | The researchers investigated whether positive psychology constructs such as classroom enjoyment, grit, and growth mindset, along with extramural English, can be used to predict students’ L2 WTC | 160 EFL primary school students in Hong Kong | Questionnaire and semi-structured interview | The researchers discovered that the L2 WTC among students was influenced by factors such as classroom enjoyment, grit, and the presence of extramural English within the classroom. Additionally, outside of the classroom, the students’ L2 WTC was predicted by their level of grit, growth mindset, and engagement with extramural English activities |
Mulyono and Saskia (2021) | They surveyed the effect of affective factors on learners’ WTC in conventional classroom and digital environments | 436 Indonesian EFL | Questionnaire | The study conducted revealed that self-confidence, speaking anxiety, and motivation were strong predictors of students’ WTC. Additionally, it was found that students exhibited a higher level of WTC in digital settings |
Rahimi and Fathi (2022) | The researchers investigated the influence of e-tandem on the speaking abilities of EFL students, specifically focusing on speaking fluency and coherence, vocabulary usage, grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and WTC | 22 EFL learners | Questionnaire and semi-structured interview | The findings suggested that both e-tandem and traditional classes contributed to the enhancement of EFL learners’ speaking abilities and WTC |
Reinders and Wattana (2014) | They explored the impact of engaging in digital game play on learners’ WTC | 30 Thai EFL learners | Questionnaire | The findings indicated a noticeable and substantial enhancement, as individuals reported increased self-assurance, reduced anxiety, enhanced proficiency, and greater WTC |
Soyoof (2022) | The researcher conducted interviews to explore the perception of Iranian EFL students regarding WTC in an extramural digital context | 50 Iranian EFL | Interview | The findings suggested that educational methods (K-12), personal relationships with conversation partners and supportive communities, emotional factors such as confidence and anxiety in using a L2 in online environments outside of school, and the social atmosphere among different groups all play a role in impacting students’ L2 WTC |
Tai and Chen (2020) | The impact of Google Assistant on the WTC among adolescent EFL learners was examined by the researchers | 112 EFL learners | Questionnaire and interview | The findings indicated that Google Assistant played a crucial role in boosting EFL students’ WTC, improving their confidence in speaking, and decreasing their anxiety when speaking |
Waldeck et al. (2001) | A scale was created to assess the email communication tactics utilized by students to enhance their WTC with their teachers in online settings | 289 undergraduates | Questionnaire and self-reports | It has been discovered that students exhibit a higher tendency to engage in online communication with teachers who utilize message strategies that replicate behaviors associated with immediacy |